Flaw In the Reasoning

What are Flaw in reasoning questions?
- It is a close cousin of MOR questions.
- Very rare. 5% of gmat questions. Expect to see it if you are doing well on the exam.
- Identify why/How the reasoning is flawed.
- Do not need ANY EXTERNAL Data.


What are various different flaws in reasoning?
     - Improper Comparison
     - Corelation misinterperated an Causality
     - Use of Limited Sample
     - Failure to consider Complete Picture

Improper Comparison
   author comparies entities that
     - Are Not comparable
     - Are comparable only when cartain assumptions are met.

Corelation misinterperated an Causality
There are arguments which establishes causality simply based on coincidence of 2 events.Such arguments may be flawed , as the 2 events may ,in reality, be unrelated.

There Use of Limited Sample
There are arguments which establishes conclusion based on data, but the sufficiency of data can be easily questioned.

Failure to consider Complete Picture


Summary
Note that in all of the above mentioned flaws, the flaw arises from FLAWED Assumptions. There think of assumptions when solving this question type.


Flaw in reasoning vs Weaken
Flaw                                                                        Weaken
  Verbage                                                                    Verbage
  Which of the following explains                                  Which of the following if true, will
   why the argument is flawed?                                         Point out the flaw in the argument.

Correct Answer                                                                      Correct Answer
   Doesn contain new info                                            Contains new info
  Analyses info in the passage                                         Weakens the argument.


What is the process to approach Flaw questions?
- Read and understand the passage
- Create Logical Structure.
- PRETHINK using framework
- Evaulate the answer choice.

Resolve the Paradox

What is a Paradox
 A set of true statements that condradict one another.

Resolving a paradox: Selecting a scenario in which both statements can co exist without conflict.

What is tested?
 Your ability to digest/assimilate information in the passage.
 Your ability to evaluate new information which when introduced in the passage resolves the contradiction.

< 5% of GMAT questions

How to identify RTP question
 - Their goal is to introduce a paradox. So spotting one is the way to spot the question.
 - Generally, Do not contain any conclusion.

Process for Answering Questions a) Identify the 2 contrasting statements.
 b) Pre think on how to resolve.

Method of Resolving Paradox
Resolution Framework
     - Because of New Info Fact A is true, eventhough fact B is valid.
     -  This new info can either address fact A or Fact B or both the facts. Most of cases, it addresses both the facts simultaneously.
This new info can present info that
a) Ineffective Implementation    Proposals to lead to Improvements. But they are not realized.
    Ans: Ineffective Implementation
b) Alternate Reasoning (Most Common)
c) Improper Comparison    Two entities being compared are not comparable in the first place.
Note: The correct answer choice may not resolve the paradox. It may just resonably support the coexistence.

Characteristics of Incorrect Answer Choices
a) OFS: Presents unrelated info which does not address the paradox.
b) opposite: Instead of resolving, increases the paradox
c) iSWAT
d) Rbi: revalant but incorrect. Only explains one side, and hence doesnt resolve the paradox.
 Ex: Paradox about rise and fall whereas the AC is about just rise
       Paradox about decrease in sales wheras the AC is about why sales
did not increase.

Resolve Verbage Which of the followinf IF TRUE, performs the ACTION to solve the ISSUE in the passage
                                                                         explain                      Paradox                                                                         resolve                      Discrepency
                                                                         reconsile                   Contradiction
                                                                                                         Conflict
                                                                                                         Puzzle

Evaluate

What does Evaluating an Argument mean?

    - It means posting a question which when answered either increases or decreases the validity of the argument.
    - Post the questions such that both both the posibilities exist.

10% OG12 Evaludate Questions. Very Very Important.

Evaluate questions tests two things
    - Your ability to identify assumptions
    - Your abilty to understand the correct answer choice and determine the correct choice.

Note:
Each assumtpion could lead to one or more answer choices in an evaluate question type. Therefore, evaluate answer choices are not mere rephrases of annumptions.

How to approach Evaluate Questions?

1) Understand the argument? i.e Understand what is claimed?
2) How is it claimed? (Logical structure)
30-45 seconds for 1 and 2
3) Pre think your answer.
 a) Understand Author's assumption
 b) Pre-Phrase evaluate answer choices.
15 seconds
4) Evaluate each answer choice
 - Use Variance test
15-40 seconds.

Evaluate Verbage

a) Type 1: VERY Common
Uses words such as access, evaluate, investigate, judge.. etc..
Answer Choices: Questions such as whether , if , is.. etc
b) Type 2: Not SO Common
Which of the following , if true would be most important .. evaluate..
Answer choices : factual statements.

Variance Analysis

To test whether a given choice is the correct choice to evaluate the argument

Usage:    a) When u have narrowed down the choices to 2 answers
    b) The validate your choice.
Using it on each and every choice will consume too much time.

How to perform the test?Take an answer choice and take it to extremes(yes or No, High or Low)
If validity of the argument also swings to extremes, then this is the correct answer choice.
Incorrect answer choice:
If only one extreme is validated.
Therefore, CORRECT answer choice exhibits a bipolar nature, i.e, the validity of the argument swings depending on the answer.


Strategies when in Doubt
Reason for Doubt   Mitigation Plan
- you didnt understand the conclusion      - Re read the information in the passage again
- you were not able to comprehend one   - Question the snwer choices between which there is confusion and ask which one of them could be incorrect.
 or more answer choices
-You were unable to evaludate the
 answer choices in context of
 the argument.


INCORRECT Answers - OFS   : irrelevant and hence not the answer
 - iSWAT : relevant but not the answer

Weakener

Weaken Concept 30% questions

 

What is a weaker

provide new information to make the conclusion less believable
 a) cast doubt on the validity of the conclusion. Remember that this answer choice needednt break the conclusion.
 b) Shatter the conclusion. This happens if an answer choice negates a cpnclusion.


These questions tests 2 things: How well you understand the argument made by the author?
 How well you incorportate new information that refuts this argument..


Step By Step way to approach weakener questions.Identify premise and conclusion
create logical structture
ask what will weaken this
evaluate answer choices


Characteristics of correct and incorrect answer choices
Characteristics of correct answer choicesa) MUST weaken the conclusion
 may shatter it by negating the assumption
 may cast enough doubt
b) MUST provide new information
 correct weakener cannot re state information in the passage.

Weakeners may
 attack premise-premise relationship
 attack premise conclusion relationship

Characteristics of incorrect answer choices
OFS :  New info unrelated that may not have any impact on the conclusion.
Opposite Effect :  Strengthens the conclusion
iSWAT :  uses similar terminology to provide irrelevant information.
Restating old info.

Weakener Verbage
attack
argue against
call into question
cast doubt
challenge
counter
damage
flaw

Strengthen

CR Strengthen Questions: 15%  = 2

What is a Strengthener?
Support Author's Reasoning by
 1) Providing additional evidence
 2) Addressing the assumptions

What is tested?
 - Understanding how the argument is made?
 - Incorporating new information to support the argument.

Diference between strengthener and assumption:-
 Strengthener - Provides ADDITIONAL evidence to support the conclusion
 - Makes the conclusion more believable.
 - Negating it May/May Not break a conclusion.
 Assumption - Provides ESSENTIAL information for the conclusion to be true.
 - Is absolutely necessary for the conclusion to hold true.
 - Negating an assumption breaks a conclusion.

Learn a structured way of approaching Strenghen questions.
 - Identify Premise and conclusion
 - Create Logical structure.
 - Ask what will strengthen this argument?
 - evaluate answer choices.

Characteristics of Correct & Incorrect Strengthen Answers.
Characteristics of Correct Strengthener
 - Must support the conclusion
  - Must be in the scope of passage
  - Must make the conclusion more believable
   - May be an assumptio
  So What check?
    One way to figure out if an answer choice supports the conclusion.
    Ak so what? does this answer choice make the conclusion more believable? Is yes its a strengthener. If no its NOT.
 - Must provide New information
  - correct strengthener cannot be restatement of premise.

Characteristics of INCorrect Strengthener - OFS
 - Opposite Effect
 - iSWAT


Verbage of Strengthen Questions - helps
 - most justifies
 - strengthens
 - supports

Misc
if in an argument,
 reason---> something
then any answer choice that provides another reason for the "something" then the answer choice is a potential weakener.

if in the argument.
 reason 1 --> something happened
answer choice: how something happened = OFS
evidence indicating
 likelyhood of success
 subject has good capabilities
 history of success
 some fav factors for successfull outcomes

Diff between A and S
- A can support P to support C, wheere as S has to support C???

Assumption

What is an assumption?

The unstated idea required for the conclusion to be valid.
An argument can have >1 assumptions.


What is Tested?
Understanding how the argument is made.
Incorporating new information that the author assumes.


Roles played by assumptions: 2 roles.a) Bridges the logical GAP [Most common role played by the assumption]
b) Protect against weakeners. [Mostly applicable on the cauisal passages]


Structured way of approaching assumption questions
1) Identify Premise & COnclusion.
2) Create Logical Structure
3) Ask what does he author assume?
3) Choose correct answer choice.

Characteristics of correct and incorrect answer choice
a) Characteristics of correct answer choice
- Must suppor the conclusion
 therefore, should not go against the conclusion.
 Should be in the scope of the passage.
- Must Pass the negation test
- Must provide new Information.
 Threfore, cannot be re-statement of opremise.
 Assumptions are never stated in the passage.

More on Negation Test
 Apply it to 2-3 answer choices
 How to Negate:
 Necklace is made of GOLD    Vs    Necklace is NOT made of gold.
                                                         Necklace is made of Anything But gold.
 All apples in the basket are rotten  Some apples...
                                                      None of the apples..

Note:
Statements may support the conclusion but still NOT ne an assumption if they do not break the conclusion on negation.

b) Characteristics of incorrect answer choice
 OFS: Out of scope
      Presents unrelated information that may not have any impact on the conclusion.
 Opposite Effect:
      Provides infoamtion that weakens the conclusion.
 iSWAT: incorrect similarly worded attractive terminology
  Uses the same terminology but completely irrelevant information.
 Rbi: Relevant but inconclusive.
  Information supports the conclusion but doesnt break it on negation. Strengtheners are typical examples.


Assumption question verbage.
 depends on
 assumes
 based on
 assumption


DOUBT:Can assumptions also support premises : Yes

Inference

• about 10% qsnts : 1-2 on test day

What is an inference?

If the information given in the passage is TRUE, WHAT ELSE MJUST ALSO BE TRUE?
CR Passage on INFERENCE may or may not contain a conclusion.
The passage may contain a set of independent facts. 

What is tested?Your ability to assimilate information in the passage.
Your ability to identify scope of the information.
Tour ability to draw inferences.

Diff roles that an inference can play. - Logical inference from a combination of premises.
 - Restatement of One of the facts.

Structured way of approaching Inference questions.a) Identify related and independent facts
b) create logical structure
c) Draw an inference.
d) Choose correct answer.

Types of incorrect inference answers.

1. Out Of Scopepresents unrelated information that is not discussed in the passage
Such choices exploit your prior knowlwedge of the subject.

2.Might be true
Provides information that MIGHT be true but is not completely supported by the passage.

3. ISWAT Incorrect SImilar worded answer Terminology.
 - modifier misuse
 - negated relationship
 - reverse relationship

Verbage of Inference Questions

 - Must be TRUE
 - Inferred
 - Drawn on basis of


More Analysis needed1)
Negating infrences , if it negates premises, then ur inference is right.
DO NOT use external information to draw inference

2) Q: are MIGHT be TRUE answer choices within the scope? YES

Misc1) Most: Strong Likelyhood.
2) if x = y ,We cannot infer the following: NOT x => Not y